The Lifelong Affects and Consequences of Domestic Violence

The Lifelong Affects and Consequences of Domestic Violence Anderson University Liberal Studies 495: Senior Seminar in Liberal Studies Instructor: Rob Lever Samuel Crosby II November 27th, 2011 Abstract Domestic Violence has been proven to have an unhealthy impact on the victims exposed to the violence. Most people do not realize the scope of the potential adverse affects that domestic violence has on adult victims, pregnant victims, children and adolescents that are exposed to the type of behavior. When a woman is pregnant and becomes a victim of domestic violence, she is not the only one affected, but her fetus is as well. Domestic violence has been linked to physical, mental and emotional damage to its victims which can†¦show more content†¦The physical abuse may start as something considered to be small or insignificant; a pinch, grab or a shove. If that behavior is not corrected it will lead to more harsh abuse in every subsequent episode. Many times victims are abused as a result of being made to participate in unwanted sex. Emotional abuse can be just as severe or in some cases more brutal than physical abuse. Physical abuse may leave a victim with visible scars, but sometimes emotional abuse has lingering lifelong effects. When a person is emotionally abused it can affect their confidence and perception of the world. The abusive partner will usually identify and focus on things that they perceive to be valuable to the victim in order to control them. One way of controlling a victim is by withholding access to things like money and basic essentials. The goal is to make the victim to feel and in essence become totally dependant upon their mate. No individual should ever be subjected to verbal, emotional, psychological or physical abuse on any level. This is why it is so important for victims to seek help that can remove them from a potentially hostile relationship before it gets violent and someone eventually loses their life. There are laws in place in several states that will prosecute abusers and the state will usually pick up the case and only use the victim as a witnesses. These laws have been implemented to save people that have been repeated victims of abuse. When victims areShow MoreRelatedThe Effects Of Domestic Violence On Women1652 Words   |  7 PagesDomestic violence is present in all regions of the world regardless of race, culture, or religion. It is not uncommon for men to experience spousal abuse. However, in reality abuse done by men towards women is a much more common occurrence. Men often abuse women as a result of negative domestic relationships experienced during childhood, the feeling of inadequacy and mental illness. 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Great Wall Essay For 6Th Grade Example For Students

Great Wall Essay For 6Th Grade The Great Wall of ChinaTo the northwest and north of Beijing, a huge, serrated wall zigzags its way to the east and west along the undulating mountains. This is the Great Wall, which is said to be visible from the moon. This massive wall has not only been one of the Ancient Seven Wonders of the World, but it has also been inspiration for many artists, and writers. The building of the Great Wall is one of the biggest tragedy?s, but through this tragedy arose triumph with the wall, being so much to so many people. The Great Wall of China is much more than a wall, and was built for many reasons that are hidden to most. Construction of the Great Wall started in the 7th century B.C. The wall states that under the Zhou Dynasty in the northern parts of the country each built their own walls for defense purposes. After the state of Qin unified China in 221 B.C., it joined the walls to hold off the invaders from the Xiongnu tribes in the north and extended them to more than 10,000 li or 5,000 kilometers. This is the origin of the name of the 10,000-li Great Wall. (Karls, Robert 10,000-li Great Wall)To understand everything about the Great Wall it is necessary to know the many components of the wall, and their purposes. The Great Wall was renovated Pearson 2from time to time after the Qin Dynasty. A major renovation started with the founding of the Ming Dynasty in 1368, and took 200 years to complete. The wall we see today is almost exactly the result of this effort. With a total length of over 6,000 kilometers, it extends to the jiayu Pass in Gansu Province in the west and to the mouth of the Yalu River in Liaoning Province in the east. What lies north of Beijing is but a small section of it. (Karls) The Badaling section of the Great Wall snaking along the mountains northwest of Beijing was built at the beginning of the Ming Dynasty in the 14th century. Being 7.8 meters high and 5.8 meters wide at the top on the average, it has battle forts at important points, including the corners. (Karls)Located 10 kilometers south of the Badaling section of the Great Wall and built in an 18.5-kilometre-long valley, the pass has always been an important gateway northwest of Beijing. The name is believed to have its origin in the workers and slaves conscripted to build the Great Wall in ancient times. Cloud Terrace, built in 1345, was originally the base of a pagoda over looking the main road of the town of the pass. The arched gate of the terrace and the walls inside the arch are decorated with carvings. Of elephants, lions, birds, flower and heavenly kings as well as charms in six languages-San skrit, Tibetan, Phats pa (Mongolian), Uygur, West Xia and Han. (Karls)The Mutianyu section of the Great Wall, 70 kilometers northeast of Beijing, is linked to the Gubeikou section on the east and the Badaling section on thePearson 3west. The Mutianyu section of the Great Wall is crenellated for watching and shooting at the invading enemy. Some of the battle forts on the wall are as close as 50 meters apart. It is one of the best sections of the Great Wall. (Karls)Located in Miyun County northeast of Beijing, the Jinshanling division of the Great Wall, like the Simatai division, belongs to the Gubeikou section of the colossal defence barrier. The battlements in the Jinshanling division of the Great Wall are built along the ridge of a mountain, where the soldiers can resist the invading enemy by taking advantage of the high terrain. (Karls)Located to the east of Jinshanling, the Simatai division of the Great Wall is 3,000 meters long and has 35 battle forts. The wall rises and falls w ith the precipitous mountain ridge, while the battle forts are located high up the hills. From the Beakon Tower alarm was raised by means of smoke signals, at night by fire. Smoke was produced by burning a mixture of wolf dung, sulfur and saltpeter. Shots were fired at the same time. Thus an alarm could be relayed over 500km within just a few hours. (Karls)From Shaikwan on the the gulf of Liao Tuna to the Hwang Ho, Chin Shih Hwang Tis Great Wall followed the highlands of the southern rim of the Mongolian basin and thus had some phisical justification. However in its continuation westward along the north bank of the Hwang Ho. The Wall ceases to conform to a natural region. For it crosses the 15 inch isohyet and embraces a large area of sparce and variable rainfall. The Ordos wich is far more suited to Pearson 4pastoral economy than intensive agriculture thus indisregarding geographical factors and attempting to include permanetly within his domains, essentialy pastory lands. Chin Shih Hwang Ti defeated his own ends and the main purpose of the wall, i.e. the seperstion of t hese two economies. Often there were large numbers of nomads living within The Great Wall while it was sited so far north. Nineteen Hsiung-Nu tribes occured at the Ordos region at the time of the three kingdoms (ad 220-265). While the Han emporers remained powerful and energetic they were able to keep the northern pastorialists under control but emidiatly there was a weakening of imporial power. The old forces reasserted themselves and thestruugle between the two ways of life was renewed. Chin Shih Hwang Tis wall to the north of the Ordos was eventually abandoned and one to the south conforming closely to the 15 inch isohyet was built. The Great Wall of China has done its job well seperating these two areas as well as protect that part of China from being attacked. (Forbes, Geraldine Asian Studies)The Chin Dynasty began it?s reign over China in the year of 221 B.C. The very first emperor at that point in time self appointed himself and proclaimed himself to be Shih Huang Ti, or the first emperor of the Chin dynasty. The name China is derived from this dynasty.( Ledoux, Trish Ancient Civilizations) With the assistance of a shrewd legalist minister, the First Emperor wielded the loose configuration of quasi-feudal states into an administratively centralized and culturally unified empire. The hereditary aristocracies were abolished and their territories were then divided into smaller provinces that would Pearson 5be governed by bureaucrats appointed by the emperor. The Chin capital, near the present-day city of Xi`an, became the first seat of imperial China. A standardized system of written characters was then adopted, and its use wasmade mandatory throughout the empire. To promote internal trade and economic integration the Chin standardized weights and measures, coinage, and axle widths. Private landholdings was adopted, and laws and taxation were enforced equally and impersonally. The quest for cultural uniformity led the Chin to outlaw the many contending sch ools of philosophy that had flourished during the Chou. Only legalism was given official sanction, and in 213 B.C. the books of all other schools were burned, except for copies held by the Chin imperial library. (Ledoux)Shih Huang Ti also attempted to push the perimeter of Chinese civilization far beyond the outer boundaries of Chou dynasty. In the south his armies marched to the delta of Red River, in what is now Vietnam. In the southwest the rim was extended to include most of the present-day provinces of Yunnan, Guizhou, and Sichuan. In the northwest his conquest reached as far as Lanzhou in present-day Gansu Province; and in the northeast, a portion of what today is Korea acknowledged the superiority of the Chin. The center of Chinese civilization, however, remained in the Huang He valley. Aside from the unification and expansion of China, The best known achievement of the Chin was the completion of the Great Wall. (Twitchett, Denis The Cambridge History of China Vol 1)Pearson 6 The Chin Empire ruled China around 200 BC. They unified all of the provinces under their rule and set up a strong system of government. This system included a huge system of taxes and required public labor of all of the citizens of China. The unification under the Chin Empire allowed public works projects to be unified on a vastly larger scale. Along with the use of tax-paying peasants for labor, the rulers also used convicts and other unfavorable groups to complete massive public works constructions such as highways, dams and walls. Twitchett, Denis The Cambridge History of China Vol 3)The Great Walls construction was begun in 221 BC under the emperor Meng Tien of the Chin Dynasty. Continual invasion and wars from the barbarians to the North drove the emperor to order its construction to protect the newly unified China. Meng Tiens Great Wall is described in his biography Hebuilt a Great Wall, constructing its defiles and passes in accordance with the configurations of the terrain. It started at Lin-tao and extended to Liao-tung, reaching a distance of more than ten thousand li. After crossing the Yellow River, it wound northward, touching the Yang Mountains. (Cambridge 62) Although the wall is considered to be well under 10,000 li (one li is approximately a third of a mile) it was truly an amazing accomplishment. (Twitchet)Meng Tien employed some 300,000 men in the creation of the original section of the wall. The building of such a massive wall would definitely be a massive undertaking. A wall that stretches through the wilderness is not easily accessed by supply lines, unlike a highway that creates its own supply Pearson 7line. There was also a massive loss of life during the construction of the wall due to widespread disease and injury. In fact it is an Ancient Chinese myth that each stone in the wall stands for a life lost in the walls construction. It is recorded that Meng Tiens section of the wall took only ten years to build, but it is believed that it actually took a substantially greater amount of time. (Delahoye, H.. Drege The Great Wall)After Meng Tiens original construction the wall was far from completed. Other walls were added to and encompassed within The Great Wall. The last major work on the wall was completed during the Ming Dynasty around 1500 CE. The Great Wall extends around 1500 miles in an east-west direction. It travels through four provinces (Hebei, Shanxi, Shaanxi, and Gansu) beginning in northern Hebei and ending in the northwest Gansu province. The Great Wall is built of many different materials, from granite blocks to tamped earth. Ranging from 15 to 50 feet high with a base width between 15 and 30 feet, the wall has guard towers spread along the entire length of the wall. Although it is highly debated whether The Great Wall served its intended purpose of keeping the invaders out, it is truly one of the greatest accomplishments of all mankind. (Toy, Sydney. A History of Fortification)The Great Wall of China was built by stacking mud or clay bricks one by one on top of each other. The brick, was first produced in a sun dried form at least 6,000 years ago, and is the forerunner of a wide range of clay building products used today. It is the small building unit in the form of a rectangular block, formed Pearson 8from clay, shale, or other mixtures and burned {fired} in a kiln, or oven, to produce strength, hardness, and heat resistance. The original concept of ancient brickmakers was that the unit should not be bigger than what one man could easily handle. Today, brick size varies from country to country, and every nations brickmaking industry produces a range of sizes that may run well into the hundreds.( Ledoux, Trish. Ancient Civilizations )The Qin Dynasty was the one that finally was able to unite the split up sections of the walls. For the emperor has grandiose plans for the empire, and he used forced labor to accomplish them. Gangs of Chinese peasants were forced to dig canals, and build roads. The one thing however, the Qin thought to be especially important was to create a better barrier to the north. Earlier rulers had built walls to prevent attacks by nomadic barbarians. First Emperor ordered that those walls to be connected, and complete the entire wall as one. Over the years, some 300,000 peasants toiled (and thousands died) before the work was done. Today the Great Wall of China stands as a monument to Qin?s ambition and to the peasants carried out their emperor?s wishes. ( The peasants at the time viewed Emperor Qin as cruel tyrant who had lost the Mandate of heaven. Nobles were angry because he had destroyed the aristocracy; scholars detested him for burning books; and peasants hated his forced-labor gangs. In 210 B.C. Qin died, and soon after the dynasty itself came to an end. Even so, the rule of the Qin brought lasting changes. The most influential changes was that of the wall, for it still stands today, finished, and a Pearson 9constant reminder to all of the once and mighty emperor. (Muyaka, Ho Chin, Huang River)This wall was used also as a barrier to isolate China, during it?s period of Isolationism before the many spheres of influence where put on China. The Great Wall was to not only give a physical barrier, but it also showed that the Chinese did not really want trade (among other things) with the rest of the world. In today?s day and age The Great Wall of China is no longer used to fight off armed cavalry, but it is used more commonly now as a tourist attraction. Tourists from all over the world come to see the Great Wall, and take photos. It is widely known throughout China for other reasons as well. The Chinese people have used the Great Wall of China in many of their folklore and legends. It is said that the Great Wall actually has a sleeping dragon inside, and it is customary in China if new land is to be plotted that a holy man check it out first so as not to have the new building disrupt the sleeping dragon. It has also been used for countless poems. One of the legends of the wall is that when a man was working on the wall he became fatigued, and a few of the guards buried him alive into the wall. When the wife of the man did not come back after the construction was completed she went to the capital to find him. After she had heard what happened the woman went into remorse, and became very depressed. It was then that the wall opened up and revealed to the woman the body of her departed husband. This is an old-wives tale that has been passed down Pearson 10throughout the years, but there is some truth to it. For it was said, and evidence has been found, that many people were buried in the wall if the were unable to work. The Wall has also been approached by a man by the name of David Copperfield who, throughout his tricks walked through the wall. Tourism is also a very big thin in China, although The Great Wall is probably the thing seen most (since it is just about everywhere in china) oth er things such as the Forbidden City among other things draw tourists to China as well. The Great Wall of China is a masterpiece in a whole. Even though it did take hundreds upon thousands human lives to build. It is a true symbol of China for what it did stand for, and also what it stands for now. China?s past was full of change, but China?s future will have the wall to look back upon as a constant reminder. The Great Wall of China is indeed a great architectural achievement for man, but what it has done to lives of the Chinese people the magnitude cannot possibly be measured in the wall itself. The Wall of China is a large creation, but it still has many secrets that most are not aware of. Pearson 11Work Cited1. Delahoye, H.. Drege, J.P.. Wilson, Dick. Zewen, Lou. The Great Wall. New York: Warwick Press, 19872. Huang, Ray. China a Macro History. New York: M.E. Sharp Publishers, 19883. Huges-Stanton, Penelope. An Ancient Chinese Town. New York: Warwick Press, 19864. Kalman, Bobbie. China the Land. New York: Crabtree Publishing Company, 1989 5. Kan, Lao Po. The Ancient Chinese. London: Macdonald Educational Holywell House, 19816. Nancarrow, Peter. Early China and the Wall. Minneapolis: Lerner Publications Company, 19807. Overbeck, Cynthia. Thompson, Brenda. The Great Wall Of China. Minneapolis: Lerner Publications Company, 19778. Toy, Sydney. A History of Fortification. London: William Heinemann, 19559. Karls, Robert. 10,000-li Great Wall. New York, Crabtree Publishing Company, 195810. Forbes, Geraldine. Asian Studies. New York, Mifflin Company, 199311. China, A Country Study. United States Government, Federal Research Division, 1988; 11-15. 12. Twitchett, Denis and Loewe, Michael. The Cambridge History of China: Volume 1. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, England, 1986; 61- 63. Pearson 1213. Twitchett, Denis. The Cambridge History of China: Volume 3. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, England, 1979; 56-59. 14. Ledoux, Trish. Ancient Civilizations: Sa nfrancisco, Mixx publishers, 198415. Muyaka, Ho Chin, Huang River: New York, Penguin Publishers, 1994

Assisted Suicide Essay Research Paper Imagine you free essay sample

Assisted Suicide Essay, Research Paper Imagine you have merely found out you are traveling to decease within three months. Recently the inquiries have been changed from, |What am I traveling to make with the remainder of my life? X to |When should I kill myself? X With painful and stultifying diseases such as AIDS and malignant neoplastic disease, and Alzheimers diseases along with physicians such as Dr. Kavorkian, , some people are taking decease over life. Doctor assisted self-destruction has been a really controversial topic in the past few old ages. Some provinces such as Oregon have passed Torahs which allow physicians to order deadly drugs to patients who have less than six months to populate. ( Hendin 1 ) Other provinces have taken the opposite side. I believe that if you are able to ground and believe rationally you should make up ones mind whether to populate or decease. If non the people who know you best should do the determination. We will write a custom essay sample on Assisted Suicide Essay Research Paper Imagine you or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page If you are of all time in a state of affairs where you know you will shortly decease the pick whether or non to kill yourself should be your ain. I believe that doctor-assisted self-destruction should non be controlled by the authorities but should be a personal pick based on the person. Many people could non conceive of life in a infirmary bed for the balance of their lives. They would instead decease with self-respect so live out the remainder of their life dependant on others. The authorities thinks that they know what is best for the people. If everyone is an person, how can the authorities cognize what is best for everyone. If feel that people should do up their ain heads about what is best for them. Joshua Haney wrote an article on aided self-destruction. He says, | Everyday we make picks that decide our destiny and hereafter. We choose where we work, what we eat and drink, etc. This is merely one more pick that we are doing. If we take off this right from people we are taking stairss towards taking off other rights. Would it be morally right to let that individual to endure in hurting in torment through some terminal unwellness? X ( Haney 2 ) I wholly agree with him. What rights will they take away following? One job people face when they are earnestly sick is the deficiency of money. There Al ways seems to be one more measure waiting to be paid. They need money to purchase prescription drugs, wage for the physicians assignments, trials, and in some instances lengthy hospital corsets. Some insurance companies will decline to pay for certain trials, or drugs, or even decline intervention wholly. Many patients can+t afford to pay for these interventions, and even if they could, most of the interventions merely prolong life for a short sum of clip. There is besides no warrant that the quality of life during these interventions would be worth the clip and money. No one wants to decease in debt and go forth their households with nil but medical measures. If you don+t wish to go on populating in hurting, why should you hold to pay for intervention that you don+t want. When person is ill it is difficult on the whole household. When person is deceasing they non merely have to cover with their ain hurting and agony, both physically and mentally, but besides with the agony that their friends and household are traveling through. They might get down to experience like a load, and may besides get down to experience guilty and down. Because of this and many other grounds some may take to decease. I am non stating that self-destruction is right for everyone, but I do believe it should be an option when person is enduring from a physical disease that has no remedy, or hope of a remedy in the close hereafter. I feel that it should be a personal determination, based on the wants of the person. The authorities and infinite Numberss of dissenters should non claim to cognize what is right for everyone. They say it is inhumane for physicians to help in self-destructions, but I have to hold with A. Wilkie Kushner, who writes, |We all dice. Death is a portion of life. Death is inevitable. Why should each of us non hold the right to take when and how we die ; and if we are in no place to make so, why should those who know us best non be allowed to assist? Why is it considered acceptable for hospital staff to indefinitely prorogue decease with machines and tubings and powerful toxic pharmaceuticals, and non to assist people travel easy when their clip has come? Where is the humanity in a ll this? ( Kushner 3 )

How Not To Job Hunt Tips from an Executive Recruiter

How Not To Job Hunt Tips from an Executive Recruiter A longtime recruiting professional, Mark Wayman knows what he looks for in an executive job seeker–and what he avoids. He relies predominantly on personal connections and referrals, so be the kind of executive with whom other top executives want to work. Using â€Å"John,† a past client, as a model of What Not To Do, Wayman advises aspiring executives to have a solid understanding of work-life balance–â€Å"Never confuse what you do with who you are.† Have a positive attitude and don’t let any personal dissatisfaction you feel at work or about your last job manifest in conversations with recruiters or prospective employers. It’s empowering to remember that you’re the one in the driver’s seat, or as Wayman puts it, â€Å"†¦In my 10 years of recruiting, I rarely see an â€Å"A† player unemployed. You are responsible for your choices. You are responsible for your situation.†It’s also important to remember that even if you’re not looking for a new job now, you may need to rely on your personal and professional networks in the future–recruiters included!–so make an effort to maintain those relationships now, before you need them. On that note, your attitude and the way you work with those above and below you may speak volumes louder than your actual job performance. As Wayman says, â€Å"Companies pay executive recruiters to identify the best candidates. Arrogance, hubris and ego are not high on our list of desired traits.† Bitterness about how your last position ended or an excessive fixation on compensation will likewise fail to endear you to hiring managers or recruiters.The bottom line is that companies want to hire enthusiastic, gracious and appreciative candidates–for your best chance at success, be the kind of executive you’d like to be managed by! When you are ready, check out over 569,785 latest job openings here.

Technology Education relevant to Curriculum Methods Article

Technology Education relevant to Curriculum Methods - Article Example In addition, it is important to note that the instructional technology is very important in the curriculum and knowledge accumulation amongst the students. This is because, when the instructional technology is employed, the curriculum can be individualized to suit the specific learning styles of different students (Scherer, 2011). This improves learning in a broader perspective amongst students. This article plays a critical role in molding the technological learners to become persons of commendable reputation in their future careers. This is evident in the instructional system relevant to the curriculum methods (Scherer, 2011). The article is very important in strengthening the curriculum methods relevant to technology education. This relates a lot towards some of the strengths vested in the article. For example, the article equips the students with lots of knowledge of the principles as well as practices of teaching and learning relevant t the field of technology (Scherer, 2011). I n addition, the article has greatly succeeded in articulating relevant curriculum documents that are very important to the students. These comprise of the manner in which the article has succeeded in instilling into students the ability to generate plans for lessons, as well as units of work in association with the contents of the curriculum documents.

Managing Human Resources Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 3

Managing Human Resources - Essay Example gement in an international organisation involves a combination of activities that maintain, develop and attract an effective workforce required to achieve the company’s objectives (Mathis & Jackson, 2007). International human resource management (IHRM) deals with managing the expatriates and deals with how the expatriates adjust to the foreign culture and the management of a diverse workforce (Cieri & Et. Al., 2005). Organisations need to put in place an effective performance appraisal system to develop the global and expatriate managers. Global performance appraisal is a strategic process that helps the multinational corporations to continuously improve their global operations through their employees by matching up to certain pre set objectives. International Performance Appraisal (IPA) sets the basis for compensation, rewards and promotions (Shen, 2010). The subsidiaries of the MNCs have different employees of different nationalities which makes performance appraisal a criti cal task. Employees in the subsidiaries are the Parent Country National (PCN), Third Country nationals (TCN) and the Host Country National (HCN). TCN and PCN together are known as expatriates. Parent Country Nationals are the citizens of the country to which the organisation belongs and they have the same cultural background as the employees in their corporate headquarters. They do not have any knowledge about the host country’s culture, social and political conditions (Denisi & Griffin, 2005). Host Country Nationals are the residents of the host country in which the company operates and they are aware of the local culture, social and economic conditions (Denisi & Griffin, 2005). Third Country Nationals are people who neither belong to the parent country nor to the host country. They bring diversity in the organisation and the organisation benefits from their experience (Denisi & Griffin, 2005). Hiring a mix of these nationals enables greater integration, control and mobilisa tion of

Language Is Rule-Governed

Language Is Rule-Governed Wittgenstein stated that his aim in philosophy was to show the fly the way out of the fly-bottle that is, to lead us out of the web of misconceptions and confusions that cloud our understanding. He argued that our confusion lay in our misunderstanding of language and the rules that govern its use. This misunderstanding resulted from the assumptions of traditional Western Philosophy which are based on a Cartesian theory of mind, a Platonist conception of reality and an Augustinian view of language. These assumptions led to the belief that the private mental realm was the primary source of language, the essential function of language was to name objects, and the rules of language were set in a fixed pattern of application respectively. As this account of rules relies on their having a fixed content, the only way to follow these rules is to discern their meaning by finding an appropriate mediating interpretation. Once the rules have been interpreted correctly, they would then disclose h ow they should be applied. Wittgenstein argued that these assumptions cloud the true nature of rule-following and meaning, leaving them vulnerable to scepticism as we lay down rules, a technique for playing a game, and that then, when we follow the rules, things dont turn out as we had assumed. So that we are, as it were, entangled in our own rules.  [2]  The issue that Wittgenstein raises is if we can argue that any action can be interpreted as acting in accordance with a rule, how can we ever know if we are following a rule correctly and therefore, how can we justify that our use of language holds any meaning? This reveals the flaws in the traditional belief that it is the rules themselves that act as the normative standards by which we discern whether or not our use of language is correct. Therefore, we must look for another source of normativity in order to preserve the notion of meaning. In light of Wittgensteins view that following a rule is a practice  [3]  which is analogous to obeying an order  [4]  , I believe that his account of language establishes it as rule-governed by situating the requisite justification and normativity in the linguistic community. These requisites are met in Wittgensteins account as when we are taught a rule we are also trained to follow it in a particular way determined by the linguistic community of which we are a member. I will expound this view by firstly looking at the rule-following considerations as found in 185 and 201 to explicate Wittgensteins view that we cannot establish how to follow a rule correctly by looking at the rule itself, but rather we must examine at how the rule is applied as part of a communal practice. I will then use Meredith Williams critique of Saul Kripkes sceptical solution to the paradox and her argument for a communitarian view of Wittgensteins account of rule-following to discuss what a socially e mbedded justification and standard of normativity might entail. Following from this I will go on to examine John McDowells critique of Crispin Wrights anti-realism in order to discuss how a social normative standard can be established through the shared understandings held by a linguistic community. When describing the purpose of the rule-following considerations, Wittgenstein stated that what we are destroying is nothing but houses of cards and we are clearing up the ground of language on which they stand  [5]  by which he means that through a re-evaluation the nature of language we may dissolve the empty questions that traditional philosophy had been concerned with, including the question of what constitutes meaning. Wittgenstein aimed to achieve this by reminding the reader that rule-following cannot be a mental process by which we discern the meaning of the rule and then establish a set pattern of application. Perhaps the most important issue with the traditional view of rule-following that Wittgensteins attack brings to light is the regress of interpretation. Wittgenstein highlights this flaw in the belief that interpretation necessarily clarifies the content of a rule and provides a method of application. He does so by stating that there is no reason why an interpretat ion may not be just as ambiguous as the rule itself and therefore may also be subject to the same interpretative process as the rule. No one interpretation is going to be unambiguous in every situation to every individual. Therefore, the move to symbolic language does not clarify the rules contents, it simply leads to a regress as in this chain of reasoning we place one interpretation behind another as if each one contented us at least for a moment, until we thought of yet another lying behind it.  [6]  This regress means firstly that there is no ultimate justification to be found through interpretation, and secondly that the countless interpretations that a rule may be subject to renders the rule meaningless. From this Wittgenstein concludes that there is a way of grasping a rule which is not an interpretation  [7]  , meaning that understanding is not always aligned with the act of interpretation and rule-following does not necessarily involve a mediating interpretation bet ween the rule and its application. A second challenge uses the discrepancy between the infinite applications of a rule and the finite amount of times we can observe this application. This discrepancy shows that we cannot regard our understanding of a rule as the grasping of a set pattern of application that we must replicate in every future circumstance. Wittgenstein explicates this challenge in his deviant learner example in paragraph 185, in which a student seems to be following a numerical series +2 correctly up until he reaches 1,000 where he then changes to the series of +4. If the teacher had made the student stop following the series before 1,000 he would have never known that the student misunderstood the rule that he had been taught. The deviant learner also brings forth the issue that for any rule applied, for example, a 100 times, we can imagine other rules that give the same results but then diverges on its 101st application. This means that we cannot conceive of the meaning of rules as an infinite set of their application and therefore it is implausible to argue that when we explain a rule that we have an infinite set in mind. Just like the teacher in the deviant learner example, we may believe that someone has mastered the application of a rule, up until the point where they begin to get it wrong. This may happen at any point through a sequence and thus there is no way of knowing for certain if the person has understood the rule. Therefore, if we represent rules as infinite sets of applications but we only deal with finite numbers of these applications we can never be sure that we have successfully taught the rule, or are following it correctly ourselves. This means that if we wish to examine rules through how we follow them rather than their content, we cannot regard rule-following as being guided by rails invisibly laid out to infinity  [8]  if we wish to develop any semblance of normativity. Regarding his own view of the relation between a rule, our understanding of it and our method of application, Wittgenstein uses the analogy of playing chess, stating where is the connection effected between the sense of the words lets play a game of chess and all the rules of the game? Well, in the list of rules of the game, in the teaching of it, in the everyday practice of playing  [9]  . This means that our understanding of a rule results in how we are taught to understand it and this socially constructed comprehension manifests in the action of following of the rule as part of a custom. For example, when we encounter a signpost pointing right, we react to this by turning right because there is an established custom of doing so which we are initiated into through training. As there is clearly nothing inherent in the arrow that tells us how to react to it, this custom can only have been established by the community of which we are a member. Although Wittgenstein makes it clear that he believes that how we follow a rule is how we participate in a communal custom, he recognises the problem concerning the sustainment of normativity that this view must address. If our understanding is moulded by how we are trained, what happens when two people react to their training differently and how do we know which reaction is the correct one?  [10]  As it is the community that establishes how we follow a rule, and we can make no valid reference to the rule itself, it must then be the community that decides whether an individual follows a rule correctly. However, is there any way to prove that the community can provide the normative standard required to know whether or not we are following a rule correctly? I will now address this issue, beginning with an examination of Kripkes sceptical account of rule following. Saul Kripkes discussion of Wittgensteins account of language (which he stressed was not an interpretation, but a line of thought inspired by his reading of Wittgenstein) rests on the sceptical belief that there is no mental fact that can provide an ultimate justification for our belief that we are following the same rule in the same way as we have in the past, and therefore no objective notion of meaning. Although Kripkes account has not been popular, its influence is undeniable as it is used as the point of departure for the standard approach to rule-following  [11]  . Kripke founded his sceptical version of Wittgensteins account of rules on the first challenge to the classical account that I previously discussed which he named the sceptical paradox. This was our paradox; no course of action could be determined by a rule, because every course of action can be brought into accord with the rule. The answer was: if every course of action can be brought into accord with the rule, then it can be also brought into conflict with it. And so there would be neither accord nor conflict here.  [12]   Kripke saw this issue to be, the most radical sceptical problem that philosophy has seen to date  [13]  he stated that the problem lies in that we cannot discern a fact about the mental state of an individual that can justify their belief that they are following a particular rule in the correct way. Thus, the notion of rule-following becomes meaningless. In order to explicate the problem Kripke used the quaddition example in which he asked the reader to imagine in the method of calculation quaddition where, x quus y = x + y if x, y This would mean that quus would give the same results as plus for numerous calculations, up until y In order provide a solution to the sceptical paradox, Kripke argues that Wittgenstein must look for an exterior source for justification and normativity. Kripkes Wittgenstein finds this justification by first accepting the sceptical problem and acknowledging that there can be no ultimate justification therefore the solution must be sceptical itself. From this starting point he then reduces the severity of the problem by arguing that what is required to solve the sceptical problem are not truth conditions (the facts that meanings must obtain to in order to be true), but justification conditions. These justification conditions rest on our answers to the question what is the role, and the utility in our lives of the practice of asserting (or denying) the form of words under these conditions?  [14]  In other words, we must justify our understanding of a rule by showing how we use it within our everyday lives. Our application of the rule is then evaluated by the community as to whethe r it conforms to the usual application of the rule and is therefore correct. Kripkes sceptical account of rule-following does succeed in providing a comprehensive and plausible account for how we invest meaning into the notion of rule- following through community based justification and evaluation. However, it seems that by accepting the scepticism brought to light by the by the paradox Kripke is guilty of the very misunderstanding that Wittgenstein was trying to correct. Wittgensteins rejection of the sceptical problem appears to be shown in the second paragraph of 201 in which Wittgenstein states that we thereby show that there is a way of grasping a rule which is not an interpretation, but which, from case to case application is exhibited in what we call following the rule and going against it  [15]  . From this it appears that Wittgenstein believed it was possible to reject the view that understanding is reliant on interpretation without having to accept on a sceptical theory of meaning. Meredith Williams highlights Kripkes misunderstanding, arguing t hat his belief that the apparent lack of epistemic guidance and justification for the correct application of a rule presents a genuine problem reflects a continued allegiance to the ideal expressed in the classical view  [16]  . She argues that this allegiance distorts Wittgensteins view by searching for an epistemic solution, leading Kripke to replace truth conditions with justification conditions and subjective verification with communal verification. Although Williams shares Kripkes community view of rule-following, she holds that this is not simply a sceptical solution but a genuine source of justification, stating that Wittgensteins answer to the paradox is not a sceptical throwing up of the hands with But this is what I or we do, but an appeal to the social embeddedness of rules  [17]  . She also criticizes Kripke for misunderstanding the community view by denying the authority of those who have mastered the language and forms of life that they are involved with, thus making the authority of the community arbitrary. Williams argues that Wittgenstein held an overtly communitarian view of rules, she evens goes as far as to argue that only the communitarian view can provide rules with the power to constrain the behaviour of the individual and space needed for the basic normative distinction between correct and incorrect. Williams describes the activity of rule-following as a matter of establishing a second nature  [18]  . Rules gain their power from appearing natural and inevitable, meaning that we develop an instantaneous and blind obedience to them. Blind obedience is cultivated through the training of a novice by a master wherein the novice is taught the technique of application that lies in the background and gives content to the formula as rule  [19]  . These techniques then become bedrock practices which need no epistemic justification as they are legitimised by their conformity. Williams argues that it is the blind obedience in the application of bedrock judgements and actions that create space for the rule rather than vice versa, which she calls the primacy of action. Williams argues that both the novice and the master act blindly, they are alternative blind as they are unaware of alternative actions and judgements. The Novice is blind as they unquestioningly follow the example and in struction of the master as they are aware of no other alternatives. Masters act blindly as once they have mastered the language they are blind (or no longer subject to) the verification of the community. From this Williams then argues that it is these two kinds of blindness than can give weight to the constraints that rules place upon an individual by providing the necessary foundational level needed to stop the regress of interpretation. In regards to the issue of normativity, Williams argues that the necessity of following a rule in a particular way is established through a communal regularity which constitutes the form of life against which error and mistake, truth and falsity can be discerned.  [20]  This means that the community does not provide a normative standard through its assent. Rather, it is the structure of the community or in other words, a certain history and a certain setting  [21]  which sustains the regularity of practices over time therefore acting in accordance with this regularity that constitutes following a rule correctly. This means that when we engage in blind actions and judgements, we comply with rules in a way that has been developed in the community of which we are a member, therefore, it is only in relation to the structured practice of the community that the individual can engage in normative activity  [22]  . Williams theory of blind obedience as the source of the necessity of rules and normativity of rules as socially constructed appears to be a valid interpretation of Wittgensteins account of rule-following. However, the notion of socially embedded normativity appears to be in need of further examination. Even if Williams account does not rely on the overtly arbitrary assent of the community, how can an individual compare their understanding of the meaning of an expression with the one provided by the structured practice of the community and furthermore, how may the community ascertain an individuals understanding of a rule in a comprehensively in order to subject it to verification? In light of these queries, I believe that a more substantial account of social normativity is needed, one that I will explore in John McDowells critique of Crispin Wrights anti-realist theory of meaning. Crispin Wright held a community view of Wittgensteins account of rule-following however, he saw this as necessarily aligned with an anti-realist stance due to the scepticism against investigation-independent truth values that he took to be inherent in Wittgensteins rule-following considerations. According to Wright, there can be no such thing as an objective or investigation-independent fact and so the only source of normativity available to a language speaker is the verdict of the linguistic community. However, due to the lack of investigation-independence this verdict is arbitrary. Wright challenges the existence of investigation-independence by refuting the hypothetico-deductive picture of understanding which he believes to be a foundational aspect. In the case of learning a language, this theory assumes that the trainee is able to form a hypothesis of what they believe their trainer is attempting to convey. Wright argues that this would suggest that we all have some innate grasp of an idiolectic pattern of application. If this is the case, we can then assume that this insight is shared communally. Wright rejects this view of understanding as psychologically artificial  [23]  as it rests on the assumption that we have such access to understanding that allows us to make verifiable assertions about the meaning of expressions. He argues along similar lines to Kripke, that there is no way that a trainee may prove that her hypothesis correctly mirrors that of the apparent investigation-independent fact in every case of application. This then means that it is not possible to have a direct and privileged insight regarding the requisites of understanding an expression irrespective of whether this insight is shared. If we wish to claim that investigation-independent facts pertaining to language exist, they must be recognisable; otherwise the correct use of language would have to be regarded as a radical transcendence of human consciousness  [24]  . However, Wrights examination of the hypothetico-deductive picture shows that an individual cannot attribute themselves with the abil ity to recognise whether they are using an expression in accordance with the prescribed pattern of the fact, let alone persuade anyone else that they have this ability. From this Wright concludes that there is truth in the idea that it is community of assent which supplies the essential background against which alone it makes sense to think of individuals responses as correct or incorrect  [25]  . However, if we suppose that this means that the community has the capability that the individual lacks to recognise whether they are conforming to a determined pattern, we are then faced with the same dilemma as the individual as there is no way of knowing whether consensus aligns with correctness. Wright argues that communal consent can be the only authority regarding the correct employment of language (or in other words the application of the rules of language) but for the community itself there is no authority, so no standard to meet  [26]  meaning a community does not go right or wrong in accepting a particular verdict on a particular decidable question, rather, it just goes.  [27]   In accordance with Wrights belief that meaning cannot be constituted by investigation-independent facts he states that, the only notion of objectivity which the anti-realist can allow himself is the ordinary contrast between areas where disagreement is taken to betoken error or misunderstanding  [28]  . He argues that this is an acceptable view of meaning as our assertions can be given substance through reflecting on our epistemic practices from which they arise. However, this does not seem to be satisfactory, or even in alignment with Wittgensteins intentions due to such statements such as the agreement of ratifications is the pre-condition of our language-game, it is not affirmed in it  [29]  . It appears Wittgenstein believed not only that language games and the rules that govern them are not wholly determined by ratification, but they needed a stronger validation than such ratifications can provide. Although it is clear that Wittgenstein would not regard our grasping of m eaning as the grasping of a private idiolectic pattern, the way in which Wright approaches this seems to threaten normativity in an unnecessary way by associating the invalidity of the hypothetico-deductive picture with an inability of a community to recognise whether or not the individual is able to follow rules correctly. McDowell takes this view in his article Following a Rule in which he argues that Wrights anti-realist theory of meaning and understanding is not recognizable as such and furthermore cannot be regarded as Wittgensteins view. He states that Wrights rejection of investigation-independence yields a picture of the relation between the communal language and the world in which norms are obliterated  [30]  . In light of this it is difficult to see how the susceptibility of the individual to be corrected by the community can be regarded as a form of normativity as there are no norms that may constrain the judgement of the community. McDowell states that this revelation turns Wrights argument on its head  [31]  as it is then becomes necessary to reject anti-realism in order to discern an applicable notion of meaning. According to McDowell, the crux of Wrights misunderstanding, shared with Kripke lies in their overlooking of Wittgensteins intention to refute the convergence of understanding with interpretation which reflects his desire to preserve the sanctity of normativity and meaning. In fact, McDowell sees Wittgensteins goal as finding a middle path between two horns of a dilemma, one which he takes to be Kripkes view that understanding is necessarily interpretative leading to the sceptical paradox, and Wrights view in which expressions are behavioural reactions cultivated by the community making any notion of normativity an illusion. McDowell argues that the way in which we may follow a rule blindly avoiding the need for interpretation while retaining normativity is to situate the questions regarding rules, meaning and understanding within a framework of communal practices  [32]  and furthermore, to redefine what it means to be a member of a linguistic community. According to McDowell, a linguistic community is bound together, not by a match of mere externals (facts accessible to just anyone) but by a capacity for meeting of minds  [33]  . It is as a result of the capacity of members within a linguistic community to access aspects of other members understanding of expressions, that they are able to ascertain a shared meaning. McDowell concedes that Wright is correct to reject the idea that understanding an expression is to formulate a hypothesis concerning something concealed by the speakers linguistic behaviour. However, the anti-realist conclusion from this rejection is misguided in that it fails to also reject the idea that there is such a thing as surface linguistic behaviour. The linguistic behaviour of a speaker that is apparent to others must be characterised in terms of the contents of utterances  [34]  . A command of the language spoken by the speaker allows direct cognitive contact  [35]  with the meaning of this content and thus establishes true meeting of the minds. By this McDowell is suggesting that what we mean by our utterances is not hidden, it is in fact clearly discernible to those who speak the same language. By taking this view McDowell highlights Wittgensteins call for us to stop trying to look beneath the bedrock for reasons as to why we follow rules in a certain way. It is possible to ask further questions concerning the nature of rule-following and meaning but to do so blocks off the obvious and surely correct reading: that hearing a word in one sense rather than another is hearing it in one position rather than another in the network of possible patterns of making sense that we learn to find ourselves in when we acquire mastery of a language  [36]  . When we learn a language we also learn the ways in which this language should be used; there need not be a gap between the expression of a rule given in trainingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦and an action in conformity with it  [37]  . Therefore, when we understand an expression we use it in accordance with the communal use and our meaning is clear to those who share our language and customs. If we do not understand, our incomprehension is also clear and we may then be corrected. This appears to coincide with Wittgensteins belief that what is true or false is what human beings say; and it is in their language that human beings agree. This agreement not in opinion, but rather in form of life.  [38]   In this essay I have addressed the question of does Wittgenstein establish that language is rule-governed by discussing the issue of whether his account of rule-following can provide the justifications and normative standards that following a rule require. My exposition of the rule-following paradox and the deviant learner example revealed how Wittgenstein proved that we cannot provide a comprehensive account of rule-following by referring to the content of rules. However, even if this is the case, it does not necessarily mean that we must be sceptics regarding meaning as Kripke suggests. To believe that normativity and justification must be epistemic in nature is to misunderstand what it is to follow a rule. Williams account of how training situated within a particular social structure leads individuals to follow rules blindly effectively encapsulates how the only justification we require for the way we follow rules is that we have been trained to do so. I do believe Wright raises a valid point in asking how we may recognise that our understanding of certain rules is shared by others. However, through my examination of McDowells view that by sharing a language we are able to gain significant insight